Solid-state fermentation by Trichoderma viride for enhancing phenolic content, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in ginger.

The phenolic content of methanol and water extracts of ginger fermented by Trichoderma spp. using solid-state fermentation (SSF) was evaluated and was compared with unfermented ginger. The total phenolic content in fermented ginger increased several times. The highest phenolic content in ginger was detected after SSF by T. viride. The optimal physiological conditions for the maximum production of phenolic compounds and ß-glucosidase activity of fermented ginger by T. viride were detected at day 7 incubation, pH 6·0, 30°C and 30% moisture. The SSF of ginger by T. viride greatly enhanced the antioxidant potency of phenolic compounds and was evaluated using DPPH and ABTS assays. A potent antibacterial activity of the phenolic compounds of fermented ginger was observed against all the tested human-pathogenic bacteria. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first report to investigate the optimal physiological conditions of solid-state fermentation (SSF) of ginger by Trichoderma viride for enhancing its phenolic content and antioxidant capacity. In addition, the phenolic compounds of fermented ginger could be potentially used as a dietary adjunct and an antibacterial agent.

Expression profiles of immunity and reproductive genes during transition period in Holstein cattle.

The transition period is a critical time for dairy cows as the animal is subjected to the physiological stress accompanying parturition. Immunosuppression and health status were examined during this period in 80 Holstein cows. Blood samples were taken from each cow 3, 2 and 1 week before and after calving, and at calving (0 day). RNA was extracted and subjected to real-time PCR to determine mRNA levels for the immune-related genes TLR 2, 4, 6, 7 and ß-defensin 5 in addition to the reproduction-related genes prolactin and IGF-I. Results showed significant up-regulation of pro-inflammatory-selected genes, TLR 4, 6 7 and ß-defensin 5 at the third-week post-calving; however, earlier periods had lower expression of such genes. In contrast, the immunosuppression biomarker TLR2 gene was up-regulated at calving and 1 week after parturition and then down-regulated again at second and third week. Prolactin and IGF-I genes expression levels were significantly and gradually increased mainly post-partum. This research highlights that the expression patterns of TLRs, BNBD5, PRL and IGF-I could be biomarkers to follow up immune and reproductive status of dairy cow at peri-parturient period to predict the most susceptible risk time for disease incidence and to build up management protocol.

Light and electron microscopic study of peripheral nerve damage in patients with lepromatous leprosy (LL) and borderline lepromatous leprosy (BL).

Cutaneous branches of radial nerves in patients with lepromatous leprosy (LL) and borderline lepromatous (BL) were studied by light and electron microscopy. Foamy macrophages were found more or less in the nerve fibers of all leprosy patients and distributed in the epineurial, perineurial and endoneurial areas. In the endoneurium, the foamy macrophages were mainly located in the subperineurial and perivascular spaces. Vacuolated Schwann cells were also found in the nerve fasciculus. In electron microscopy, these foamy macrophages and vacuolated Schwann cells contained numerous small dense materials, irregular in size and shape, considered to be degenerated and fragmented mycobacterium leprae. These dense materials were found also in the cytoplasm of vascular endothelial cells. These findings suggest that mycobacteria enter into the endoneurium via the blood vessels. In our present study, on the other hand, it was very difficult to find the intact mycobacteria in the cytoplasm of the foamy macrophages, Schwann cells or endothelial cells, as well as in the Ziehl-Neelsen staining of paraffin sections. The disappearance of intact bacilli in our present study might have been caused by multi drug therapy. The myelinated nerve fibers were degenerated and disappeared in variable degrees. Degenerative changes of the myelin sheath developed from the outer layer to the inner layer with disarrangement of the lamellar structure. These findings were different from myelin destruction of peripheral nerves in Wallerian degeneration. The degenerative changes of the myelin sheath are caused by degeneration and destruction of Schwann cells in leprosy patients. Fibrosis surrounding myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers, i.e., periaxonal fibrosis, was found to a greater or lesser extent in the endoneurium. In the present study, it is still unclear whether the periaxonal fibrosis was due to necrosis of the Schwann cells by infection of mycobacteria or to an autoimmune mechanism such as antiperipheral nerve antibody. However, lamellated concentric fibrosis surrounding regenerative myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers with the disappearance of mycobacteria suggests that degenerations and regenerations of nerve axons were repeated during clinical cause. These findings indicated that autoimmune mechanisms play an important role in the pathogenesis of periaxonal fibrosis.